Countries that are subject to sanctions often perceive their policies as being moral and virtuous, and they tend to view the United States as a bully attempting to dominate the world. As a result, they are unlikely to yield to the pressure of sanctions. Instead, sanctions frequently fuel resentment and can even strengthen national resolve, driving harder work and innovation.

For example, Iran significantly expanded its uranium enrichment efforts after the U.S. withdrew from the JCPOA.